The Youth Employment Summit (YES2002), an initiative of civil society, multi-lateral agencies, the private sector and other youth related stakeholders launched the Youth Employment Summit Decade Campaign of Action as a response to high rates of youth unemployment worldwide.[1] The YES Decade Campaign of Action aims to build young people’s capacity to create sustainable livelihoods and to establish an entrepreneurial culture in which young people can work towards self-employment.

As part of the YES Decade Campaign of Action the Youth Development Network (YDN), a South African network of youth organisations, is involved in a Southern African regional project aimed at promoting youth employment in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Among other activities, this project aims to develop a database on the situation of youth in the SADC region.

The Community Agency for Social Enquiry (C A S E) was commissioned by the YDN to produce a database on the situation of youth in the 14 SADC[2] countries. The database will form part of the implementation of the Youth Employment Summit Regional Support Plan for Southern Africa. The database was expected to source a wide range of youth-specific information on education, skills, employment policies and programmes as well as social and political integration of youth. This information was complemented by contextually specific information on the general economic, political and social climate of each SADC country. The requested information can be grouped into 6 distinct categories:

1. Contextual information;

2. Youth-specific economic indicators;

3. Education and Skills;

4. Youth-specific employment policies;

5. Key challenges facing young people; and

6. Social and Political integration.

This report contains the executive summaries of the final report submitted to the YDN.

Methodology

Desktop Study

The key method of data collection was a web-based search of the above-described categories, in which the collection and analysis of data was undertaken in a two-stage process. The first stage involved an internet search of information that was the most readily and easily accessible, as well as the use of C A S E publications and other printed materials. The second stage of the project involved a continuation of the methods deployed during stage 1, as well as telephonic and e-mail requests for missing information from relevant sources in the different SADC countries.

The initial stage assisted in identifying existing youth stakeholders who would be contacted in the second phase of the project. In the second stage of the project identified youth-serving or related ministries, youth-related organisations and national statistical agencies were contacted via email and telephone for missing or more reliable information.

Key Sources of Information

There were nine key sources of information that provided information on the general status of the each country, and the situation of youth in each country. Sectoral information on education, health, labour and infrastructural development was accessible from sources such as UNICEF, WHO, ILO and UN Habitat. Other sources of information were government websites, the World Bank, the IMF, newspaper articles and NGOs and CBOs that posted information on their websites.

Sources such as the Reserve and Central banks and the CIA World Fact Book provided contextual information for each country. For example, the CIA World Fact Book and the World Bank provided information on a country’s GDP and major economic sectors. The CIA World Fact Book also provided information on each country’s geographical location and size, political history and social information such as languages spoken in that country. These sources also provided a basic overview of the educational systems and health situation for some of the SADC countries.

Access to Information

Certain kinds of information on each SADC country were readily accessible, while other types of information required longer searches. For example, information on the social, economic and political climate was easily accessible from a range of sources.

Information on each SADC country’s population size, sex, race and age breakdowns of the population was readily available from a number of sources. Additionally, country indicator-information such as access to water, electricity and sanitation was easily accessible from sources such as UN Habitat, CIA World Fact Book and the World Bank among other sources. However, in some countries this information had to be supplemented extensively by in-country sources of information, especially with regard to electricity access. Internal and external sources often specified different levels of access to basic resources.

Other types of data that were easy to obtain were country information on the systems and levels of education and enrolment rates at each level was generally obtainable from UNICEF. Life expectancy and infant mortality data was available from various sources.

HIV/AIDS prevalence estimates for all the 14 SADC countries were the most accessible, although different sources generally stated different prevalence rates. For each country, there was at least one source that had data on the unemployment rate of the whole population and the major economic sectors of employment.

Access to Youth-Specific Information

Information on the age definition of youth for each country was sometimes unavailable and in other cases multiple definitions were used by various sources. A particular obstacle was that the various UN organisations where often the only source of youth-specific information, but that their definition of youth (15-24 years) did not necessarily coincide with country-specific definitions. For example, Mozambique’s definition of youth is 14-35 years and Namibia’s definition is 15-30 years.

Information about the cost and availability of primary, secondary and tertiary education was not obtainable for all SADC countries. Furthermore, not all of the SADC countries had information on the availability of youth skills and vocational training opportunities.

While data on the general unemployment rate was generally obtainable for most countries, this was not always the case for levels of youth unemployment. However, youth unemployment is generally estimated to be substantially higher than overall unemployment. Detailed labour force information about sectors of youth employment, type of youth employment (e.g. part/full time), remuneration by sector and historical trends in youth employment often did not exist. Furthermore, information on employment policies and programmes targeted at youth was often difficult or impossible to obtain, which presents an obstacle for legitimately assessing the types of opportunities youth had in each country.

Quality, Reliability & Consistency of Data

There were significant differences in the quality and reliability of the collected data between the different SADC countries. The major factor in this was often whether or not a country had its own statistical agency or if it relied solely on data from international agencies. Another important factor was the political and social stability within a given country.

Data collected from different sources was also rarely consistent, with different statistics being reported for the same questions. This was particularly the case with HIV/AIDS prevalence rates and levels of unemployment in each country. A major factor was again that this type of data generally had to be sourced from international agencies like the UN or the ILO because it had not been collected within the country concerned, and that these figures are generally based on estimates and projections. Another general challenge was sourcing relevant and recent data, as some of the statistics available were often very outdated.

Conclusion

Although to varying degrees, it was easier to source general population data rather than youth specific data in each of the SADC countries. Some of these countries may keep records of age-segregated information, however these are not easily accessible from outside of these countries. This suggests that there is a need for advocacy on knowledge development on issues affecting youth. Information keeping and knowledge development on youth issues are major factors that determine successful advocacy and lobbying. In the absence of this information youth practitioners’ advocacy and youth development initiatives may be limited. Information keeping and knowledge development on youth issues is a responsibility of all stakeholders, be they government, the civil sector and multilateral agencies. Therefore, various stakeholders should explore various methods of information keeping.

Republic Of Angola

Introduction

Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975 but has been embroiled in civil war since then. The civil war has contributed to the devastation of Angola’s economic and social infrastructure. The civil war has also undermined data-bases in Angola, making it difficult to find information about the state of youth in that country.

Definition of Youth

Because no Angola-specific definition of youth was found, this report makes use of the UN definition of 15 - 24 years.

Literacy Rate

In 1998, the literacy rate of the adult population (15 years and over) was estimated to be between 30% and 42%, with male literacy being higher (56%) than the female literacy rate (28%) (INE; CIA 1998).

Years of Compulsory Education

Angola has an eight-year compulsory system of free, basic education for children between the ages 7 and 15 years with 4 years each for primary and secondary school and an optional 2 extra years for secondary school. The economic crisis in Angola has adversely affected enrolment rates; the length and quality of education. Less than 50% of eligible children, especially girls, are enrolled in school and very few children complete more than four years of education. The quality of education has also been compromised by poor and damaged infrastructure, understaffing and the tendency to send children to informal and cheaper schools.

Skills Training available to Youth

Angola has at least 3 skills training centres offering practical skills and small enterprise development to landmine victims, and a regional programme for employment and vocational training promotion.

Impact of Education on Employability

The state of the country’s education system seems to have created a situation where it is no longer able to teach the skills which are needed, particularly in the oil, textiles and clothing, tyre and cement sectors which are the main focus of the manufacturing industry.

Employability

No data was available on employability.

Percentage of Youth Economically Active and Unemployed

In 1985 Angolan youth formed 30% of the 5 million employed (ILO). A recent SADC statistic (2000) indicates that the unemployment rate in Angola stood at 31.1%. Youth are likely to be based in the informal and agricultural sectors, as 85% of the labour force is in this sector (ILO Genderstats). Additionally, during the civil war youth were an important source of labour in the lucrative illegal diamond trade.

What affects levels of Employment?

There was no data available referring to the factors that influence levels of employment.

Historical Trends in Youth (un) employment

Information on the historical trends in youth (un)employment was unavailable.

Major Economic Sector by Output and Employment

The oil and services sectors contribute the most to the GDP, while the agricultural and industrial sectors employ the most number of people. Given that the fishing and oil sectors have been the least affected by the civil war, they have the potential to form the most lucrative sources of employment for youth in which a comprehensive education and skills transfer drive would be necessary.

Types of Youth Employment

While information was available on the major economic sectors in terms of output and employment, information on the types of youth employment was unavailable.

HIV/AIDS Prevalence

In 1999, UNAIDS and WHO estimated an HIV/AIDS prevalence of 2.78%, while UNAIDS estimated an increase to 5.5% in 2002. Fifteen thousand people were estimated to have died from HIV-related illnesses in 1999 (UNAIDS).

Youth HIV/AIDS Prevalence

HIV prevalence rate was estimated at 1% for male youth and 3% for female youth in 1999, increasing to between 4% and 7% for male youth and 1.6% and 3% for female youth by 2002.

Knowledge About HIV/AIDS prevention amongst Youth

According to UNICEF, there is very low awareness of HIV/AIDS prevention amongst the Angolan population. This is perhaps evidenced by Angola’s high prevalence of teenage pregnancies. Youth AIDS is actively promoting HIV/AIDS awareness in Angola.

Impact HIV/AIDS on Employment

No data was available regarding the impact of HIV/AIDS on employment. It is known, however, that HIV strikes the economically active population the hardest – even though Angola’s HIV/AIDS prevalence rates are still relatively low.

Key Challenges Facing Youth

The legacy of the civil war has disrupted all spheres of social life and economic life. Impoverishment, displacement, disability and the lack of infrastructure (health, education etc) are some of the challenges facing youth. The government is currently implementing a Global Social Reintegration Programme (PGDR) worth an estimated US$ 231 for ex-UNITA rebel soldiers and their families.

Policies which Affect Youth or Youth Related Policies

Although in 1999 the Angolan government announced its intention of drafting a state youth policy, there is nothing to indicate that it has been drafted or implemented. Sectoral policies on education, culture and education, in which youth could be incorporated, do however exist.

Details of Youth Specific Policies and Programmes

Data not available

How Successfully have they been Implemented

Data not available

Conclusion

Angola is faced with re-integrating child soldiers back into the community. As one of Africa’s poorest countries Angola has to transform its fisheries, manufacturing and agricultural sectors. Since the country is wealthy in diamonds it has the opportunity to transform its mineral wealth into real economic growth like Botswana.

Republic Of Botswana

Introduction

Botswana is currently ruled by system of multi-party democracy and has remained peaceful since its independence in 1966. The Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) is the ruling party after winning 54.3% of the vote in 1999. The next democratic elections will be held in 2004. Despite having maintained of the world’s highest economic growth rates, 44% of the Botswana’s population still live below the poverty line, and has a very high HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.

Definition of Youth

In 1995, the youth definition in Botswana was defined as 12-29 years.

Literacy Rate

General literacy rate was 68.9% in 1993, in which male literacy was significantly higher (70.3%) than female literacy (66.9%) (CSO Literacy Survey). In 2000, youth literacy rate was estimated at 88.3% (UN).

Years of Compulsory Education

Botswana has free and compulsory primary education for children aged 7-14 years and aims for universal basic education of 10 years. Primary school enrolment rates were much higher (115%) than tertiary level enrolment rates - 4.9% (CSO).

Skills Training available to Youth

Botswana has a number of skills training available to youth. There are 46 Vocational Training Centres offering training in business skills, social care, construction and decoration, information and communication technology, among other areas (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning: Budget speech, 1999). Botswana is planning to align training with country’s critical sectors such as manufacturing and industry.

Impact of Education on Employability

The Population Project estimates that the size of the more-educated labour force is growing and the less educated labour force is decreasing. The Population Project also suggests that there is a mismatch between the skills needed in the economy and the skills produced by the education system. They suggest that in the 1990s there were a significant number of people in the labour force with secondary education who held unskilled jobs. Youth also identified language skills as important for functioning in the workplace (CSO: Literacy Survey: 1993).

Employability

Data not available.

Percentage of Youth Economically Active and Unemployment

In 1985 youth labour force participation of those aged 15-19 years was 46.1% and 78.2% for the 20-24 year olds, these statistics decreased to 29.4% for 15-19 year group and 66.8% for 20-24 year group in 1991 (CSO: Population and Housing Census). Another source stated that youth employment was 16% (YES2002). BIDPA states that youth unemployment was as high as 52% in 1994 (Junior Achievement Botswana).

Historical Trends in Youth (un)employment

While data on youth part/full time employment was unavailable, there are indications that youth unemployment has worsened in Botswana.

Type of Youth Employment

Data not available.

What affects levels of Employment?

Two factors may contribute to youth unemployment, in that Botswana’s education policy may not match the employment needs of the country and there are low levels of enrolment at university level.

Major Economic Sector by Output and Employment

While the mining and the tourism sectors contribute the most to the GDP at 34.2% and 15.9% respectively, the agriculture and livestock and the services sectors employ the largest number of people, at 43%and 52% respectively (LFS 1993/94).

HIV/AIDS Prevalence

HIV prevalence rate among the general population was 19% (UNDP Botswana).

HIV/AIDS Youth Prevalence

While youth-specific HIV/AIDS prevalence statistics were unavailable, 20% of youth are not using contraceptives putting them at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS and STIs (BOPA). About 3 out of 10 adolescents live with HIV and half of all new infections are among teenagers (AllAfrica). Adolescent girls’ infection rates are also higher than young male infection rates. Additional data on the impact of HIV/AIDS on employment was unavailable.

HIV/AIDS Impact on Employment

No data available, but HIV/AIDS is considered a threat to Botswana’s economic gains.

Knowledge about HIVAIDS Prevention amongst Youth

Although there are clinics run by UNIDEF and UNFPA offering information on HIV/AIDS and treatment of STIs, the UNDP reports that 60% of youth do not have access to reproductive health and family planning. Furthermore other research suggests that there is “little hard evidence” to show that school-based HIV/AIDS education has had a major impact on sexual behaviour (University of Sussex).

Key Challenges Facing Youth

Some of the key challenges facing Botswana youth are the effect of HIV/AIDS, unemployment and teenage pregnancy, which was 19% (UNDP). Other challenges include alcohol and drug abuse and practices of unsafe sex (IRIN news 4 July 2003).

Policies which affect Youth or Youth Related Policies

Policies that affect youth are the Vision 2016, the National Development Plan for Youth (ND7), Culture Policy and Sport Policy, National Youth Policy (UNDP Botswana), Youth Charter: 2002 (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung: FES international).

Details of Youth Specific Policies and Programmes

According to the Minister of Labour and Home Affairs (1994), the National Development Plan (NDP 7) recognizes the need to slow down the rate of population growth in order to cater for the youth in terms of education, health and other amenities, as well as to provide meaningful employment.

How Successfully have they been Implemented?

Although Botswana’s economy has been steadily increasing over the last 2 decades, not all of its policies have promoted human growth and development. The shortcomings of current labour market policies, the slow pace of reform of state-owned enterprises, and the large-size and unstable growth of Government have contributed to 44% of the population living below the poverty line. Furthermore, Botswana has to deal with youth unemployment and the rapid increase in the prevalence of HIV/AIDS which may have a substantial implication for progress in developing its human capital and improving productivity (World Bank Group 2000). In terms of skills training available to youth, it seems that the vocational and training centres are popular, since 9 609 students enrolled in 1999 (CSO).

Conclusion

Botswana has an opportunity to extend its successful economic growth to the development and sustainability of youth.

Democratic Republic Of Congo

Introduction

Years of civil war and corruption have badly damaged the DRC’s economy and infrastructure (US Dept 2003). In 2002 a peace agreement was reached between the government, rebel groups and neighbouring governments. Despite this agreement the conflict continues in parts of the DRC. As a result, very little information is available about youth in this country, and those figures that are available should be treated with caution.

Definition of Youth

There does not appear to be an official definition of youth in the DRC. However, it is known that in the DRC children aged 16 or above can be sentenced to death, and child civilians and child soldiers are brought before military courts (UNHCHR, 2001).

Literacy Rate

The UNDP estimates that the literacy rate has increased from 41% in 1985 to 61% in 2000. The female illiteracy rate is high, especially in rural areas. Youth literacy (15-24 years) was approximately 82% (UNDP).

Years of Compulsory Education

School is compulsory for children between 6 and 11, but attendance is estimated to be below 75%. Only about 40% of children complete this compulsory period (ISS, 2003). Secondary education is not compulsory and begins at age 12 for six years. Enrolment in secondary school is even lower at 25%, and this is mainly due to the conflict in the DRC. The school enrolment rate for girls is particularly low and the Red Cross/Red Crescent estimates that the drop out rate for girls is as high as 46% (2002).

Skill Training available to Youth

This data was unavailable.

Impact of Education on Employability

This data was not available

Employability

Information on the levels of youth employability was unavailable.

Percentage of Youth Economically Active and Unemployed

It is difficult to obtain up to date, reliable statistics regarding youth unemployment or economic activity in the DRC. According to the UN, almost half of youth aged 15-19 years (male: 53%, female: 45%), and 73% of youth aged 20-24 years (male: 88%, female: 57%) were economically active in 1985. Overall it is estimated that youth aged 15-24 years made up 29% of the labour force in 1985, with far more males (20%) than females (9%).

Types of Youth Employment

The conflict in the DRC has in a strange way provided ‘employment’ for millions of young people. As soldiers in various armies, they received food or pay in exchange for their labour. However, the recent cessation of conflict has released numerous young jobseekers into the labour market, many of whom lack the skills or attitude required for employment. The reintegration of child soldiers into society is another challenge in the DRC.

What Affects levels of Employment?

Although no data was available, it is likely that the civil war and corruption adversely affect youth employment.

Historical Trends in Youth (un)employment

Specific data was not available, although the Democratic Republic of the Congo has one of the richest reserves of natural resources in the world, but the economy has declined drastically since the mid-1980s due to economic mismanagement and the on-going conflict in the country. The DRC is now one of the poorest countries in the world, ranking 150th out of 174 with respect to income per capita (Red Cross/Red Crescent, 2002).

Major Economic Sector by Output and Employment

Agriculture dominates the Congolese economy, contributing roughly half of GDP (ISS, 2003). According to IMF estimates, mining contributes 8%, manufacturing just 4%, and trade and commerce 17%. Decades of state-sponsored plunder, declining infrastructure, minimal investment and almost continuous conflict since 1996 have led to a steep decline in production. The country cannot feed itself and is dependent on imports from neighbouring countries.

HIV/AIDS Prevalence

The adult prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the DRC is currently estimated at 5% (UNAIDS, 2002). No youth-specific information is available. Although the DRC was the first African country to design and implement an HIV/AIDS programme, at present the prevention programmes are virtually non-existent. The epidemic has worsened dramatically in recent years as a result of economic crisis, conflict and related population displacements (USAID, 2002). Other factors fuelling the spread of HIV in the DRC include the movement of large numbers of refugees and soldiers, the scarcity and cost of safe blood transfusions in rural areas, a lack of counselling and testing sites, high levels of untreated sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and low availability of condoms outside Kinshasa.

HIV/AIDS Youth Prevalence

Data was unavailable.

HIV/AIDS Impact on Employment

This data was unavailable.

Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention amongst Youth

Data was unavailable.

Key Challenges Facing Youth

Unemployment, the continuing conflict and the lack of resources are amongst the key challenges facing youth in the DRC.

Policies which Affect Youth or Youth Related Policies

Policies and programmes that aim to develop and uplift youth in the DRC have been almost non-existent in recent years, and no information is available regarding such initiatives.

Details Of Youth Specific Policies and Programmes

There are currently no national studies of data gathered since the beginning of the war which provide a statistical analysis of the humanitarian situation.

How Successfully have they been Implemented?

This data was unavailable.

Conclusion

Joseph Kabila is the first Congolese president to make a serious attempt at serious economic reform and for the first time in several years the recorded economy is showing signs of growth. Attempts are also being made to bring an end to the war in the region, although this does not appear to have been successful as yet. As a result of the war the needs of youth have received little attention in the DRC, and youth employment programmes and skills development are virtually non-existent.

Republic Of Lesotho

Introduction

Lesotho, a landlocked mountainous kingdom gained its independence from Britain in 1966. Lesotho has undergone political instability since 1965. The kingdom currently has a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The country held elections in 2002, and the Electoral Institute of South Africa deemed them credible, free and fair. Despite this, the opposition continues to boycott government sponsored events.

Definition of Youth

Lesotho seems to operate with three youth definitions. The National Youth Policy, UNAIDS and WHO operate with the 10-24 years age definition, while a youth related government department uses the 10-35 years definition. A youth expert (Mkandawire) states that Lesotho’s youth definition is 12-35 years.

Literacy Rate

Youth literacy (15-24 years) increased from 85.1% in 1985 to 90.5% in 2000 (EAC).

Years of Compulsory Education

Lesotho has compulsory primary education for children aged 6-12 years with only 68.1% enrolment rate.

Skills Training Available to Youth

As the only university, the National University of Lesotho has an average yearly attendance of 1,400 students. There are 4 vocational and 3 technical schools in Lesotho. One of these schools offers both technical and vocational training. The total enrolment rate at technical and vocational schools in Lesotho is 1, 859. There is a renewed strategic plan has been focused on consolidating education sectors in order to increase the number of enrolment and the quality of education.

Impact of Education on Employability

Data not available.

Employability

Data was not available.

Percentage of Youth Economically Active and Unemployed

Governmental estimates of youth unemployment range between 44% and 65%-70% (Ministry of Environment, Youth and Gender).

Types of Youth Employment

Data unavailable.

Historical Trends in Youth (un)employment

Although no youth specific data was available, the unemployment rate appears to have decreased since 1997, as it was registered at 34.2% inclusive of migrant labour.

Major Economic Sectors by Output and Employment

Of the 72.7% economically active, 8.1% worked for government, 1.8% worked for parastatals and 21.5% work in the private sector (LFS 1999/00). Given that the Lesotho’s economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture and livestock about 68.6% of those employed are involved in subsistence farming.

What affects levels of Employment?

Data not available

HIV/AIDS Prevalence

Ranked as the fourth worst hit country, HIV/AIDS is the largest health threat for Lesotho. In 1999 the HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate was 23.57% with an estimated 240 000 living with HIV/AIDS.

HIV/AIDS Youth Prevalence

The HIV/AIDS youth prevalence rate (15-24 years) was estimated at 24.75%-51.4% for women and 11.31%-23.49% for males (UNAIDS 2002).

Impact of HIV/AIDS on Employment

Data not available.

Knowledge about HIV/AIDS Prevention amongst Youth

According to CARE it is common amongst the youth in Lesotho to have multiple partners. Despite information on HIV/AIDS many people still practice unprotected sex. The use of contraceptives also appears to be low as 52% of young women have children before reaching the age of 19. While the government has prioritized HIV/AIDS and STD education, a private sector coalition aimed at the prevention rather than treatment of HIV/AIDS was launched in 2002. The coalition comprised of the association of Lesotho Employers, CARE and International Organization for Migration. UNDP in collaboration with UNDP will support the formation, functioning and expansion of youth networks to further advocacy on HIV/AIDS and inculcate youth with prevention and management of the disease.

Key Challenges Facing Youth

HIV/AIDS, unemployment and high level of drug and alcohol abuse are the main concerns of Basotho youth.

Policies which affect Youth or Youth Related Policies

The ministry of Gender, Youth and Sports handles socio-economic issues facing youth. This ministry coordinates the National Youth Policy of Lesotho in cooperation with other youth-serving ministries and youth organizations (UN). Further information on the National Youth Policy was unavailable. The Lesotho Youth Federation, an umbrella body for youth organizations and clubs is another organization focusing on youth related issues.

Details of Youth Specific Policies and Programmes

In 1998, a National Employment Policy was adopted. The policy was aimed at promoting full productive and freely chosen employment and providing skill and knowledge for the work force. The National Environment Youth Corps project aimed to create employment opportunities for youth through training on environmental management and rehabilitation. The government set itself millennium goals of eradicating poverty, achieving primary education, promoting gender equality, improving mental health and fighting HIV/AIDS. It is still pursuing the achievement of these goals.

How Successfully have they been Implemented?

Further information on these policies and programmes was unavailable.

Conclusion

Challenges faced by youth such as youth unemployment, the prevalence of youth HIV/AIDS which is exacerbated by the unchanging sexual behavior amongst the youth can be overcome by clear youth policies and a stable political environment.

Republic Of Malawi

Introduction

The Republic of Malawi is currently a democratic state, ruled by a multi-party system consisting of a total of four political parties under the presidency of Dr. Baliki Muluzi, after being colonised for 73 years and ruled by a dictatorship until the early 1990’s. Malawi is a very small country with a very large population. About 65.3% of Malawi’s population live below poverty line making it one of Africa’s poorest countries (Population Census).

Definition of Youth

The Malawi National Youth Policy defines youth as those between the ages of 14-30 years and in some cases this is extended to 35 years. However, the UN definition (15-24 years) is also often used.

Literacy Rate

The total population’s literacy rate was 58% in which female literacy was significantly lower (43.4%) than male literacy (72.8%) in 1999 (CIA). In 1998, youth literacy (15-24 years) was 82.1% for males and 70.7% for females (NSO).

Years of Compulsory Education

According to the Malawian government, the education system consists of 8 years of schooling, 4 years each for both primary and secondary school, and it is compulsory for those aged 6-14 years. The net enrolment rate at primary was 65.7%, while the gross enrolment rates were 16% at secondary level and only 0.6% at university level (NSO). Malawi has very high drop out rates, YES estimates that about 500 000 young people dropout of school or fail their examinations.

Skills Training available to Youth

Malawi has 4 000 primary schools, 70 858 secondary schools, 108 846 distance education centres and two universities. There was no clear information on the skills training available to youth, although it seems youth have access to various training programmes on HIV/AIDS, life skills and entrepreneurship. There have been programmes set up to provide staff with re-training, job counselling and entrepreneurship training. Many youth are not formally employed which means that few are beneficiaries of these kinds of training programmes.

Impact of Education on Employability

Data on the impact of education on employability was limited, although there are indications that poor education, particularly in the rural areas limits employability (ActionAid). Furthermore, females with secondary education are generally more employable (Kamkondo 1994).

Employability

Data was unavailable.

Percentage of Youth Economically Active and Unemployed

In 1998, the economic activity of the 15-19 years age group was 36.8% in which female economic activity was higher (43.5%) than male economic activity (29.3%). The economic activity of the 20-24 years age group was 72.8%. In the 20-24 years age group, young women’s economic activity still surpassed young men’s at 74.5% compared to 71.1% for men.

Types of Youth Employment

No youth specific data was available regarding sectors in which youth were economically active or employed.

Major Economic Sector by Output and Employment

Given that information on youth sector employment was unavailable, it can be argued that employed youth are in the agricultural sector. Three major industries that contribute to the GDP were agriculture (40%), the services industry slightly higher at 41% and the industrial sector contributing 19%. While the industrial and services sector were amongst the leading sectors contributing to the GDP, these sectors had much lower employment rates compared to the agricultural sector. The agricultural sector accounted for 86.64% of those employed, while the services and industrial sectors contributed 8.44% and 4.92% respectively.

Historical Trends in Youth (un)employment

No information was obtainable on the historical trends of youth employment, although the NSO describes the Malawian labour market as characterised by single gender mobility and high levels of unemployment.

What Affects levels of Employment

ActionAid reports that various factors affect the general population’s employment levels. These range from natural disasters such as droughts and floods to lack of access to education, public transport and access to markets.

HIV/AIDS Prevalence

The Malawian National Aids Commission estimated that HIV/AIDS prevalence among the 14-59 year age group was 14%. The urban HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is higher at 30% compared to the 10% in the rural areas.

HIV/AIDS Youth Prevalence

In 1997, youth HIV/AIDS prevalence rate was 13% (NACP). UNAIDS estimates that young men’s HIV prevalence rate was 5.08%-7.68%, while young women’s prevalence estimates are higher, at 11.91%-17.87%. Age among women is another factor that determines HIV infection or risk. Teenage women’s HIV incidence was 6% compared to women over 35 where it was only 1%.

HIV/AIDS Impact on Employment

It is projected that by 2005, 25% and as much as 50% of people currently employed in the urban based sectors would have died of AIDS. FAO also predicted that smallholder agriculture would be particularly vulnerable to the effect of HIV/AIDS (Policy Project 2000).

Knowledge about HIVAIDS Prevention amongst Youth

The KAPB survey was conducted in Malawi exploring youth’s HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitude, practice and behaviour. However the survey data was not accessible.

Key Challenges Facing Youth

There are a number or challenges facing Malawian youth. These range from unemployment and underemployment, lack of vocational training, sexual harassment to HIV/AIDS and STDs, drug and alcohol abuse, teenage pregnancy and early marriage.

Policies which Affect Youth or Youth Related Policies

Malawi’s National Youth Policy aims to address youth unemployment, educational opportunities, youth non-involvement in decision making, youth crime and deviance, teenage pregnancy and drug and alcohol abuse. Other issues covered in the policy are high population growth rates and the increasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Another policy geared to have a positive effect on youth was the Universal Free Primary School Education Policy.

Details of Youth Specific Policies and Programmes

The National Youth Policy offers guidelines of action on the following areas; education, training and empowerment, science and technology and environment, population, health and nutrition and social services and recreation, sports and culture. SEDOM and the Youth Department have worked together to develop entrepreneurship training material as well as provide financial assistance for business. This programme is facilitated through the Malawi Youth Development and Credit Scheme.

How Successfully have they been Implemented?

While there was information available on Malawi’s National Youth Policy, further information on its implementation was unavailable.

Conclusion

The majority of Malawians are employed in the agricultural sector, but government expenditure is only 15%. The government is currently formulating and implementing a strategy aimed at increasing crop production. Apart from its agricultural sector, Malawi has the potential to expand its mining sector as the country has rich reserves of unexploited uranium, coal and bauxite. Malawi’s economic outlook 2003 is mixed as it faces difficult agricultural conditions and low investment, but should gain relief through HIPC.

Republic Of Mauritius

Introduction

Mauritius is an independent island republic with a democratic government and gained independence from Britain in 1968. Mauritian territory is made up of the island of Mauritius as well as the island of Rodrigues to the east, two tiny dependencies to the north, and some twenty uninhabited islands just off the coast.

Definition of Youth

The Mauritian government defines youth as all male and female persons aged between 14 and 29 years living in the Republic of Mauritius (National Youth Policy, 1998).

Literacy Rate

Mauritius has one of the highest literacy rates in Africa. According to the Mauritian Central Statistical Office, 85% of those aged fifteen and above were literate in 2002 (males: 89%, females: 82%).

Years of Compulsory Education

Mauritius’s high literacy rate is partly attributable to the fact that education in Mauritius is free at all levels from pre-primary school to university. Formal instruction at primary school level (standard 1 – 6) is compulsory. Secondary level is not compulsory and consists of six years of instruction (forms 1-6). In form 5 students take the School Certificate exam, and those who pass take the Higher School Certificate exam in form 6.

Skills Training available to Youth

In terms of skills training available to youth, a comprehensive network of vocational training institutes is coordinated by the Industrial and Vocational Training Board (IVTB). A Training Advisory Committee (TAC) has been set up in the IVTB to formulate and implement training programmes based on the requirements of industries. The IVTB operates the School of Electronics in collaboration with Siemens to train technicians in the electrical and electronic sectors. Other IVTB schools include a school of jewellery, printing and footwear and leathercraft. In addition, the IVTB operates 14 other centres which provide training courses in the fields of engineering, precision plastics, design, textiles, hotel and tourism, hydraulics, plumbing, electrical installation, management, carpentry, metal and wood machining. A further 60 private training institutions are registered under the IVTB to ca